Due to recent and contemporary conflicts, the focus turned to the fast-evolving dynamics of modern warfare, with accent on precision-guided munitions, detection of high-value targets (HVTs), and the integration of advanced technologies – all that define the contemporary battlefield. As an example, we may use a historical nod to the “state of the art” SR-71 Blackbird jet plane, which was unknown for over ten years of its active service during the Cold-war era. The challenge is addressing the complexities of “unknown unknowns” in today’s military landscape.

The relevance of mountain warfare in 2023 is propelled by recent engagements along the Serbia-Kosovo border and in Nagorno-Karabakh. These terrains, offering strategic advantages, have become focal points of conflict, as exemplified by Russia’s utilization of mountain warfare to apply pressure and divert NATO forces.

The indispensable role of Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR), Electronic Warfare (EW), and air defence in mountain warfare persists. These systems present both challenges and opportunities for military planners. What we have to address is high-value target (HVT) and high-payoff target (HPT) hunting, raid unit tactics, precision strike teams, long-range reconnaissance, and aerial observation in mountain warfare. Real-world experience from the ongoing conflict in Ukraine illustrate the adaptive strategies adopted by both Russian and Ukrainian forces, employing small units and UAVs for effective HVT and HPT hunting.

Modern Fighter Jets

In the dynamic world of military aviation, the role of modern fighter jets is way beyond conventional expectations. No longer just bomb carriers, these aircraft now operate within a complex network, utilising instant communication between every fighter and network participant. This network-centric principle ensures that critical information is rapidly shared among all planes, creating an extensive and efficient flow of data.

However, this transformation goes beyond connectivity. It envisions linking these fighters with effectors, forming a complex data cloud system. In this integrated cloud, sensors relay real-time data, and effectors assess their operational reach and engagement capabilities. Artificial Intelligence (AI) takes the lead, swiftly determining the optimal effector for engaging specific targets. These decisions are made in seconds, a radical departure from traditional timelines measured in minutes. Importantly, this evolution is more robust against Electronic Warfare (EW) vulnerabilities. Utilizing communication means with minimal data bursts enhances the system’s resilience against EW interference, ensuring secure information transfer.

AI utilisation

In a recent the Israeli Defence Forces (IDF) have used the power of artificial intelligence (AI) to revolutionize their targeting and damage estimation processes. Implemented in 2021, this technological advancement has swiftly elevated their operational capabilities, enabling the prosecution of an impressive 50 targets daily— a significant leap from the previous 100 targets per year. This real-time integration of AI marks a shift in military strategy, demonstrating unparalleled efficiency. The IDF’s adoption of AI not only accelerates their operational tempo but also exemplifies the transformative impact of AI on modern military practices.

The rapid implementation of AI by the IDF reflects a broader trend in military technology, indicating a potential power shift in the global security within the next five to ten years. Nations incorporating advanced AI technologies will likely shape the future of warfare, leaving those slow to adapt at a strategic disadvantage.

Tactical Considerations in Mountain Warfare: Challenges in Joint Fires

In the mountain environment, with its unforgiving terrain unforgiving and weather conditions unpredictable, joint fires face unique challenges that demand cautious planning and execution. Four main critical factors—weather, terrain, target acquisition, and secondary weapon effects—play important roles in the effectiveness of joint fires in such environments.

• Weather:

In mountainous regions, weather emerges as the crucial factor influencing joint fires. Rapid weather changes, poor visibility, and fluctuating conditions within short time frames demand careful considerations. Effective planning, adequate use of technology, and utilization of favourable weather windows is necessary for maintaining precision in targeting despite weather challenges.

• Terrain:

The rugged and complex mountain terrain presents many challenges for joint fires. Target positioning, guiding pilots, determining flight paths, and ensuring weapon travel paths all become challenging tasks. Communicating precise instructions in such environments proves reliance on GPS-guided munitions to maintain accuracy and effectiveness.

• Target Acquisition:

The success of joint fires relies on accurate target acquisition, a task complicated by the mountainous topography. Coordinating with reconnaissance units equipped with GPS-capable recognition systems becomes crucial. Depending on the conflict’s rules of engagement, precision in target coordinates may vary, and the need for advanced equipment and well-trained personnel is clearly there.

• Secondary Weapon Effects:

Engaging in mountain warfare introduces the risk of secondary weapon effects, including rock slides and avalanches. The lack of scientific database on these effects results into a cautious approach. Planning must involve collaboration with experienced mountain guides, weather expertise, and a thorough assessment of terrain factors, avalanche risks, and potential impacts on both friendly and enemy forces.

The effectiveness of join fires is also heavily affected by factors such as ammunition fuse setting, and shielding effect:

Fuse Setting: Air-to-ground fuses, set at a specific altitude above ground level, aim to ensure the effectiveness of the ordnance. However, the impact angle and deep snow conditions in winter introduce uncertainties, making airburst use and fuse setting critical considerations for mission success.

Shielding, a “double-edged sword in mountain warfare”, can be both employed or exploited. Utilizing natural rock shielding fragments and channelizing blast patterns can enhance safety for friendly forces. However, the tactical use of shielding also demands careful planning to avoid inadvertently providing the enemy with protective cover behind rock formations. It is estimated that in the mountain warfare, ammunition consumption is potentially exceeded four times that of conventional terrains.

Tactical Mobility in Mountain Warfare

In mountain warfare, tactical mobility stands as a crucial factor, influencing both manoeuvre and logistical operations.

Helicopter operations offer an alternative, given threat levels and technical considerations. While helicopters enable swift supply drops and initial insertions, the presence of man-portable air-defence systems (MANPADS) and heavy machine guns in the region may limit their feasibility. Physical resilience remains crucial, demanding personnel robust enough to move through mountainous terrains independently.

Parachute insertion is a daring option for securing key terrain, despite the risks of navigating challenging landscapes and high injury hazards when landing. However, the precision required in landing zones (combined with unpredictable mountain weather) make this method a complex issue. Flexibility becomes paramount, with need for backup plans and emphasizing high weather-dependency.

Physical resilience is a fundamental requirement, regardless of the mode of entry. Whether parajumping or deploying by helicopter, soldiers must be prepared to navigate the terrain on foot, considering the uncertainty of weather conditions. The emphasis on lightweight equipment becomes a necessity, with the soldiers’ training compensating for the reduced gear. In the mountain environment, adaptability and proficiency in manoeuvring with minimal resources is a key for military effectiveness.

Air support and its challenges in Mountain Warfare

In mountain warfare, the impact of elevated terrains on airspace is tremendous. The typical allocation of airspace, extending from ground to flight level 200 (approx. 6100 meters above the sea level), becomes complicated in mountainous regions. When your ground level is already high, like in the Alps, the remaining airspace becomes significantly lower compared with low grounds, which is essential for operations involving artillery and aircraft.

Likely the most important factor concerning Air support in mountainous environment is weather and terrain features impact on communication between ground and air assets. Both terrain and weather conditions play a crucial role, affecting communication equipment and introducing challenges such as line-of-sight issues. Additionally, enemy electronic warfare (EW) systems are likely to further complicate communication.

• Satellite Communication (SATCOM):

SATCOM, a vital communication tool, requires careful planning. The mountainous landscape impacts the angle needed for proper communication with satellites. Elevation and positioning become critical factors, influencing communication effectiveness. Additional considerations are cryptographic keys and specific equipment requirements.

• High-Frequency (HF) Radios:

HF radios (often underestimated) offer advantages in mountainous terrains due to their resistance to detection and jamming. They provide reliable long-distance communication. While not as mobile as other communication tools, HF radios are effective for stationary data communication and coordination.

• Relays for Improved Communication:

Recognizing the challenge of simultaneous communication in harsh weather, establishing relay stations on elevated terrains is a cost-effective solution. These relay stations enable communication between elements positioned on key terrain, mitigating limitations imposed by rain and weather.

• UAVs as “Flying Relays”:

UAVs prove to be versatile assets not only for reconnaissance, but serving as flying relays in mountain warfare. A stockpile of UAVs capable of relaying communication ensures continuous connectivity, even if some are compromised or destroyed.

• Digital Aided Close Air Support (DACAS):

DACAS emerges as a game-changing platform, streamlining communication in mountainous regions. This technology allows for rapid target designation, providing real-time situational awareness. Short transmission bursts significantly reduce communication time, offering a marked improvement over traditional close air support procedures. Combined with fifth-generation fighters (with extended standoff ranges) is likely to enhance the effectiveness of military operations in challenging terrains.

Joint Fires Planning considerations in mountain warfare

Effective planning is paramount in mountain warfare, where factors like terrain, electronic warfare (EW), and harsh weather conditions heavily impact communication systems. A well-executed plan anticipates these challenges and mitigates risks, ensuring the continuity of operations even if command posts are compromised. Neglecting these factors can lead to severe operational difficulties. The planning process should identify specific communication needs for each task, considering all available means such as UHF, SATCOM, and HF

Other considerations for JF planning might involve:

• The Joint Fires Playbook is a tactical matrix allocating effectors, sensors, and task timings for joint fires teams. It streamlines communication by providing clear directive to teams operating in specific areas and phases. This minimizes the need for continuous communication with command posts, allowing for swift execution based on the predetermined plan.
• To minimize reliance on communication systems, execution checklists and transmission windows should be established. Detailed fire support matrix ensure that communication is only necessary in unforeseen circumstances. This approach enhances operational efficiency and reduces the risk of exposure due to communication activities.
• While communication has been the primary focus, sustaining signals and logistics are also crucial. In mountain warfare, self-sufficiency is key, requiring specialists to be self-sustained for at least 48-72 hours. Challenges, such as varied battery requirements, emphasize the need for innovative solutions, like rechargeable solar panels.
• Helicopter and aerial resupply are vital but come with challenges. Aerial resupply needs careful planning to avoid jeopardizing troops. Additionally, logistical planning must consider the offset of resupply to ensure that supplies reach their intended destinations, especially in frontline positions. This involves thoughtful consideration of who will transport the supplies and when.
• Self-Sustaining Forces in mountain environment is crucial. Specialized equipment and diverse battery needs underscore the importance of planning for prolonged periods without resupply. Water supply, in particular, presents a significant challenge that demands innovative solutions for long-term sustainability.
• Planning should extend beyond immediate needs, considering potential logistic challenges. Bringing supplies as close as possible to the landing zone minimizes the burden of carrying them over long distances. This forward-thinking approach ensures that logistical planning aligns with operational needs throughout the mission.
• The utilization of mules or donkeys is a practical solution for transporting heavy supplies. These animals are resilient to adverse weather conditions and navigate challenging terrains effectively. Their ability to carry substantial loads makes them valuable assets in ensuring that essential equipment, especially heavy ammunition, reaches frontline forces.

Key takeaways

• Bad communications are the standard and not the exemption in mountain environment;
• terrain assessment and weather considerations are imminent for mission planning;
• all means of communication have to be included in the planning process according to tasking, including contingency planning;
• in order to minimize comms, execution check lists, transmission windows and a detailed fire support matrix has to be planned and used.