Mountain warfare poses unique challenges, demanding specialized skills and strategies. Three imperatives emerge as essential for success in such terrain: survival, mobility, and the ability to combine both for effective maneuvering.
Drawing on historical examples and contemporary experiences, we may explore the significance of these imperatives and their application in mountain warfare.
Survival in the Mountains
Surviving in mountainous regions is a fundamental necessity for any military force. Historical examples, such as Suvorov in the Alps in 1799, emphasize the importance of understanding the harsh mountain environment. Suvorov’s entering with light summer uniforms and wrong assumptions, led to significant losses. The Alpine Front in World War I further underscores the challenges, where thousands of men had to adapt to the unforgiving high-altitude conditions.
Mobility
Napoleon’s crossing of the Alps is an iconic image and strategic movement, when in fact he got led by a skilled mountain guide on a mule over the mountain pass. Mobility in mountain warfare is crucial, as demonstrated by German mountain troops in the Caucasus in 1942. Their superior mobility skills allowed them to outmaneuver Soviet forces, continually dislocating the enemy and forcing them to fall back. The ability to navigate the challenging terrain efficiently is a key aspect of mountain warfare.
Mountainous terrain poses complex challenges to any activity; need to combine survivability and mobility skills is crucial. (Credit: NATO MW COE)
Mountains as an introductory to “Multi-Domain” Operations
The battle of Caporetto in 1917 marked a significant shift, introducing massed mountain forces attacking up valleys and along ridges. Mountain warfare, inherently multi-dimensional due to the terrain, requires a comprehensive understanding of all three dimensions. This approach is essential for manoeuvring effectively in high mountains, making it a unique form of warfare – because of the terrain characteristics, there are more dimensions to think of.
Civilian Collaboration
A notable aspect of mountain warfare is the reliance on civilian skiing and mountaineering communities for techniques and technologies related to survival and mobility. This collaboration is a recurring theme in the history of mountain warfare, with the military turning to civilian mountaineering expertise in different eras.
Lessons from Afghanistan
The lessons learned from mountain warfare in Afghanistan highlight the importance of going light and layering for survival. Aerial supply becomes crucial, and units must adapt to the challenges of mountainous terrains, including developing the ability to lower casualties down hills for efficient evacuation. The need for ropes and knowledge of utilizing terrain for manoeuvrability is evident, emphasizing the ongoing relevance of civilian mountaineering skills.
Steep terrain posed mobility challenges, limiting infiltration, withdrawal routes, and casualty evacuation options. Combat patrols and Observation Post emplacement required mountaineering techniques like cable systems and fixed ropes.
Military operations in the Pech River Valley (2006-2010) faced manoeuvre challenges of mountain warfare. Operations like “Operation MOUNTAIN LION” and Combat Outposts (COPs) such as Restrepo, Kahler, and Keating were pivotal. “Operation MOUNTAIN LION” exemplified the strategic adaptation to mountainous conditions, emphasizing the need for specialized equipment and tactics. COPs played a crucial role, serving as bases for military activities and providing strategic vantage points.
Lessons Learned
The U.S. Army possessed a well-developed mountain warfare doctrine outlined in FM 3-97.6 Mountain Operations (November 2000). This document included historical vignettes, detailed operational levels of mountain terrain, five terrain mobility classes, and three levels of military mountaineers. Despite this, it was noted that Army units did not routinely train for operations in mountainous environments. To address this gap, FM 3-97.61 Military Mountaineering (August 2002) was introduced, incorporating the latest alpine climbing techniques and technologies.
Mobility
The U.S. Army significantly enhanced military mountaineering training by updating and reissuing TC 3-97.61 Military Mountaineering in 2012. In 2003, the Vermont Army National Guard Mountain Warfare School was re-designated as the U.S. Army Mountain Warfare School (AMWS), becoming the Executive Agent for military mountaineering. In 2008, a single 14-day Basic Military Mountaineering Course (BMMC) was approved, allowing soldiers to earn “Skill Qualification Identifier – Military Mountaineer”. By the 2010s, AMWS was graduating approximately 400 military mountaineers annually, increasing to over 1,000 by the 2020s.
Northern Warfare Training Center and the 5th Ranger Training Battalion, also focused on various aspects of military mountaineering, emphasizing individual training and squad/platoon vertical mobility.
Military Mountaineering Kits were created to enhance mobility in challenging terrains:
High Angle Mountaineering Kit (HAWK): Designed for a minimally trained infantry platoon of 40, equipped with harnesses, carabiners, and belay devices to navigate steep terrain using established rope installations.
Assault Climber Team Kit (ACTK): Intended for three assault climbers to set up rope installations with dynamic and static ropes, cams, and chocks.
Snow and Ice Mobility Kit (SIMK): Enables a platoon of 40 to operate in steep ice and snow terrain, featuring beacons, crampons, ice axes, ice tools, and ice screws.
Developed at the U.S. Army Mountain Warfare School (AMWS) from 2009 to 2010, these kits were identified in the 2011 Infantry Small Unit Mountain Operations and fully issued to infantry brigades by 2014, marking the first time mountaineering equipment had been officially issued and incorporated into the supply system since 1943.
The U.S. Army implemented a “Mountain Training Strategy” in 2016, as outlined in Mountain Warfare and Cold Weather Operations (10-1 to 10-4). This strategy involved designating specific roles for military mountaineers/subject matter experts (SMEs) at different levels:
Level 1 Basic Military Mountaineers (basic technical skills, basic mobility skills, and assistance in planning; 1-2 soldiers per platoon)
Level 2 Advanced Mountaineers (Assault Climbers) (advanced technical skills, serving as advisors to battalion commanders, and acting as battalion trainers and planners for mountain operations; 2 soldiers per battalion, having attended a 15-day advanced course)
Level 3 Master Military Mountaineer (advisor to brigade commanders and brigade mountain trainer and planner; previous service as a mountain school instructor and a minimum of two years of experience; 1 soldier per brigade.
Manoeuvre
Planning Considerations:
Operating independently of forward operating bases.
Caution against over-reliance on armoured assets.
Balancing protection requirements with the necessity to integrate with the local population.
Offensive Operations in Mountain Warfare:
Conventional mountain offensive operations are conducted to gain control of key or decisive terrain.
Defensive Operations:
Defensive actions are undertaken for reasons such as retaining decisive terrain or denying a vital area to the enemy.
Integration of Counterinsurgency and Large-Scale Combat Planning:
Emphasizing the importance of planning for counterinsurgency operations while considering the potential for large-scale combat.
From the Afghanistan experience, the US Army (re)acquired insights into the imperatives of mountain warfare, underscoring the importance of military forces mastering survival and mobility in mountainous terrain for effective manoeuvrability. This learning primarily concentrated on individual and small unit tactics, particularly in the context of counterinsurgency operations.
However, the lessons from Afghanistan did not distinctly underscore the necessity to conduct comprehensive training for larger units in both winter and summer mountain operations.
Key takeaways:
Essential Imperatives in Mountain Warfare:
Survival: Understanding and adapting to the harsh mountain environment is crucial.
Mobility: Efficient navigation through challenging terrain is a key aspect.
Success in mountain warfare requires the effective integration of survival and mobility for manoeuvring in high mountains.
Civilian Collaboration:
Military forces often rely on civilian skiing and mountaineering communities for techniques and technologies related to survival and mobility in mountain warfare.
Lessons from Afghanistan:
Going light and layering for survival, aerial supply, and adapting to mountainous terrains are crucial lessons. Civilian mountaineering skills remain relevant, emphasizing the collaboration between military and civilian expertise.
Military Operations and Challenges:
Steep terrain poses mobility challenges, limiting infiltration, withdrawal routes, and casualty evacuation options. Combat patrols and Observation Post emplacement require specialized mountaineering techniques.
U.S. Army’s Response and Adaptation:
Mobility Enhancement: Significant efforts were made to enhance military mountaineering training and equipment.
Training Strategy: The U.S. Army implemented a comprehensive “Mountain Training Strategy” involving different levels of military mountaineers.
Equipment Development: Military Mountaineering Kits were created to enhance mobility in challenging terrains.
Manoeuvre Considerations:
Planning: Independent operations and caution against over-reliance on armoured assets, and balancing protection with integration into the local population are crucial.
Offensive and Defensive Operations: Conventional mountain offensive and defensive operations are conducted for gaining control of key terrain or retaining decisive areas.
Integration of Counterinsurgency: Emphasis on planning for counterinsurgency operations while considering the potential for large-scale combat.
The focus on individual and small unit tactics in counterinsurgency operations is highlighted, but there’s a need for comprehensive training for larger units in both winter and summer mountain operations.
02. LEARNING FROM THE PAST &
Mountain warfare poses unique challenges, demanding specialized skills and strategies. Three imperatives emerge as essential for success in such terrain: survival, mobility, and the ability to combine both for effective maneuvering.
Drawing on historical examples and contemporary experiences, we may explore the significance of these imperatives and their application in mountain warfare.
Survival in the Mountains
Surviving in mountainous regions is a fundamental necessity for any military force. Historical examples, such as Suvorov in the Alps in 1799, emphasize the importance of understanding the harsh mountain environment. Suvorov’s entering with light summer uniforms and wrong assumptions, led to significant losses. The Alpine Front in World War I further underscores the challenges, where thousands of men had to adapt to the unforgiving high-altitude conditions.
Mobility
Napoleon’s crossing of the Alps is an iconic image and strategic movement, when in fact he got led by a skilled mountain guide on a mule over the mountain pass. Mobility in mountain warfare is crucial, as demonstrated by German mountain troops in the Caucasus in 1942. Their superior mobility skills allowed them to outmaneuver Soviet forces, continually dislocating the enemy and forcing them to fall back. The ability to navigate the challenging terrain efficiently is a key aspect of mountain warfare.
Mountains as an introductory to “Multi-Domain” Operations
The battle of Caporetto in 1917 marked a significant shift, introducing massed mountain forces attacking up valleys and along ridges. Mountain warfare, inherently multi-dimensional due to the terrain, requires a comprehensive understanding of all three dimensions. This approach is essential for manoeuvring effectively in high mountains, making it a unique form of warfare – because of the terrain characteristics, there are more dimensions to think of.
Civilian Collaboration
A notable aspect of mountain warfare is the reliance on civilian skiing and mountaineering communities for techniques and technologies related to survival and mobility. This collaboration is a recurring theme in the history of mountain warfare, with the military turning to civilian mountaineering expertise in different eras.
Lessons from Afghanistan
The lessons learned from mountain warfare in Afghanistan highlight the importance of going light and layering for survival. Aerial supply becomes crucial, and units must adapt to the challenges of mountainous terrains, including developing the ability to lower casualties down hills for efficient evacuation. The need for ropes and knowledge of utilizing terrain for manoeuvrability is evident, emphasizing the ongoing relevance of civilian mountaineering skills.
Steep terrain posed mobility challenges, limiting infiltration, withdrawal routes, and casualty evacuation options. Combat patrols and Observation Post emplacement required mountaineering techniques like cable systems and fixed ropes.
Military operations in the Pech River Valley (2006-2010) faced manoeuvre challenges of mountain warfare. Operations like “Operation MOUNTAIN LION” and Combat Outposts (COPs) such as Restrepo, Kahler, and Keating were pivotal. “Operation MOUNTAIN LION” exemplified the strategic adaptation to mountainous conditions, emphasizing the need for specialized equipment and tactics. COPs played a crucial role, serving as bases for military activities and providing strategic vantage points.
Lessons Learned
The U.S. Army possessed a well-developed mountain warfare doctrine outlined in FM 3-97.6 Mountain Operations (November 2000). This document included historical vignettes, detailed operational levels of mountain terrain, five terrain mobility classes, and three levels of military mountaineers. Despite this, it was noted that Army units did not routinely train for operations in mountainous environments. To address this gap, FM 3-97.61 Military Mountaineering (August 2002) was introduced, incorporating the latest alpine climbing techniques and technologies.
From the Afghanistan experience, the US Army (re)acquired insights into the imperatives of mountain warfare, underscoring the importance of military forces mastering survival and mobility in mountainous terrain for effective manoeuvrability. This learning primarily concentrated on individual and small unit tactics, particularly in the context of counterinsurgency operations.
However, the lessons from Afghanistan did not distinctly underscore the necessity to conduct comprehensive training for larger units in both winter and summer mountain operations.
Key takeaways:
Survival: Understanding and adapting to the harsh mountain environment is crucial.
Mobility: Efficient navigation through challenging terrain is a key aspect.
Success in mountain warfare requires the effective integration of survival and mobility for manoeuvring in high mountains.
Military forces often rely on civilian skiing and mountaineering communities for techniques and technologies related to survival and mobility in mountain warfare.
Going light and layering for survival, aerial supply, and adapting to mountainous terrains are crucial lessons. Civilian mountaineering skills remain relevant, emphasizing the collaboration between military and civilian expertise.
Steep terrain poses mobility challenges, limiting infiltration, withdrawal routes, and casualty evacuation options. Combat patrols and Observation Post emplacement require specialized mountaineering techniques.
Mobility Enhancement: Significant efforts were made to enhance military mountaineering training and equipment.
Training Strategy: The U.S. Army implemented a comprehensive “Mountain Training Strategy” involving different levels of military mountaineers.
Equipment Development: Military Mountaineering Kits were created to enhance mobility in challenging terrains.
Planning: Independent operations and caution against over-reliance on armoured assets, and balancing protection with integration into the local population are crucial.
Offensive and Defensive Operations: Conventional mountain offensive and defensive operations are conducted for gaining control of key terrain or retaining decisive areas.
Integration of Counterinsurgency: Emphasis on planning for counterinsurgency operations while considering the potential for large-scale combat.
The focus on individual and small unit tactics in counterinsurgency operations is highlighted, but there’s a need for comprehensive training for larger units in both winter and summer mountain operations.