15 – Looking Beyond: A Special Insight Drones and the psyche: conditioning and consequences on military operations
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15.1 Introduction
The widespread adoption of Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) has fundamentally transformed the modern battlefield. While much attention has been devoted to their tactical, operational and logistical implications, increasing evidence suggests that their psychological effects may prove equally significant. Recent developments in Ukraine, the South Caucasus and the Middle East indicate that drones are not merely changing how wars are fought but also how combatants perceive, experience and psychologically process warfare.
Contrary to early assumptions, the introduction of unmanned technologies has not reduced the psychological burden of combat. Rather, it has altered its nature, generating new forms of stress, moral pressure and cognitive fatigue that affect both drone operators and personnel exposed to persistent drone threats.
15.2 Psychological Effects on Drone Operators
Drone operators often observe targets continuously over extended periods, acquiring detailed knowledge of their routines, movements and social interactions. This prolonged surveillance creates an unusual form of psychological proximity in which the operator develops a level of familiarity with individuals who may later become targets.
Following engagement, operators frequently conduct battle damage assessments and observe the direct consequences of their actions in real time. This exposure can contribute to forms of psychological distress that differ from conventional combat trauma.
A growing body of literature identifies Moral Injury as one of the most relevant phenomena associated with drone operations. Moral injury refers to the psychological, emotional and ethical consequences that arise when an individual perceives that they have violated, or contributed to the violation of, deeply held moral beliefs. Unlike Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), which is primarily associated with fear-based responses, moral injury is linked to guilt, shame, ethical conflict and existential questioning.
In addition, drone operators frequently experience high levels of occupational stress resulting from:
extended surveillance missions;
sustained concentration requirements;
continuous decision-making responsibilities;
exposure to graphic imagery;
rapid transition between combat operations and civilian environments.
The latter factor is particularly significant. Unlike conventional combat personnel, drone operators may participate in lethal operations during their work shift and return to family life within hours. This abrupt shift between operational and civilian contexts has been identified as a potential contributor to psychological strain and burnout.
15.3 The Emergence of “Drone Anxiety”
While considerable attention has been devoted to drone operators, recent conflicts have highlighted an equally important phenomenon affecting personnel on the ground: the emergence of what many analysts informally describe as Drone Anxiety.
Historically, soldiers were accustomed to identifying threats originating from relatively predictable directions and locations. Modern drones fundamentally alter this perception. The threat becomes omnidirectional, persistent and often invisible.
Personnel operating in drone-saturated environments understand that they may be continuously observed, tracked over extended periods and targeted without warning.
As a result, the battlefield is increasingly characterised by a perception of permanent exposure.
15.4 Hypervigilance and Persistent Surveillance Stress
One of the most frequently observed effects is the development of chronic hypervigilance.
In conventional combat, periods of intense alertness are generally interspersed with opportunities for psychological recovery. In contrast, the persistent presence of drones creates the perception that surveillance may occur at any moment. Many soldiers report developing an almost automatic tendency to scan the sky continuously, even during periods of relative safety.
This phenomenon is increasingly associated with what some researchers describe as Persistent Surveillance Stress, a condition resulting from the continuous expectation of observation and targeting.
15.5 Uncertainty and Perceived Vulnerability
A particularly significant psychological factor is uncertainty. Unlike artillery fire or direct enemy contact, drone threats are often ambiguous. Soldiers may hear a drone without seeing it, observe a drone without knowing its purpose, or suspect surveillance without confirmation.
This ambiguity increases stress levels because it deprives personnel of the ability to accurately assess risk and select appropriate responses.
From a psychological perspective, uncertainty often generates greater stress than a clearly identifiable threat. The inability to determine whether one has been detected, tracked or targeted creates a persistent state of cognitive tension.
15.6 Learned Helplessness and Operational Behaviour
Several analysts have identified parallels between drone exposure and the psychological concept of learned helplessness.
When personnel perceive that surveillance is continuous and detection may lead rapidly to engagement, they may gradually develop a sense of reduced control over their environment. For a mountain soldier this sense will be amplified by an environment that it is difficult by nature.
15.7 Implications for Mountain Warfare
Mountain Warfare presents unique conditions that may amplify many of the psychological effects associated with unmanned systems.
Historically, mountainous terrain provided numerous psychological and tactical advantages, including, like, for example, concealment, terrain masking, restricted observation and opportunities for disengagement.
The increasing availability of advanced UAS equipped with electro-optical, thermal and multispectral sensors is progressively eroding these advantages. Personnel move through valleys, ridgelines, passes and narrow mobility corridors that can be systematically monitored by aerial surveillance assets.
Consequently, soldiers may experience a growing perception that traditional terrain protection can no longer be relied upon. This may contribute to elevated levels of stress, reduced confidence in concealment measures and increased hesitation during manoeuvre operations.
For Mountain Warfare forces, the psychological dimension of drone proliferation may therefore become as significant as its kinetic effects.
15 – Looking Beyond: A Special Insight Drones and the psyche: conditioning and consequences on military operations
15.1 Introduction
The widespread adoption of Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) has fundamentally transformed the modern battlefield. While much attention has been devoted to their tactical, operational and logistical implications, increasing evidence suggests that their psychological effects may prove equally significant. Recent developments in Ukraine, the South Caucasus and the Middle East indicate that drones are not merely changing how wars are fought but also how combatants perceive, experience and psychologically process warfare.
Contrary to early assumptions, the introduction of unmanned technologies has not reduced the psychological burden of combat. Rather, it has altered its nature, generating new forms of stress, moral pressure and cognitive fatigue that affect both drone operators and personnel exposed to persistent drone threats.
15.2 Psychological Effects on Drone Operators
Drone operators often observe targets continuously over extended periods, acquiring detailed knowledge of their routines, movements and social interactions. This prolonged surveillance creates an unusual form of psychological proximity in which the operator develops a level of familiarity with individuals who may later become targets.
Following engagement, operators frequently conduct battle damage assessments and observe the direct consequences of their actions in real time. This exposure can contribute to forms of psychological distress that differ from conventional combat trauma.
A growing body of literature identifies Moral Injury as one of the most relevant phenomena associated with drone operations. Moral injury refers to the psychological, emotional and ethical consequences that arise when an individual perceives that they have violated, or contributed to the violation of, deeply held moral beliefs. Unlike Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), which is primarily associated with fear-based responses, moral injury is linked to guilt, shame, ethical conflict and existential questioning.
In addition, drone operators frequently experience high levels of occupational stress resulting from:
The latter factor is particularly significant. Unlike conventional combat personnel, drone operators may participate in lethal operations during their work shift and return to family life within hours. This abrupt shift between operational and civilian contexts has been identified as a potential contributor to psychological strain and burnout.
15.3 The Emergence of “Drone Anxiety”
While considerable attention has been devoted to drone operators, recent conflicts have highlighted an equally important phenomenon affecting personnel on the ground: the emergence of what many analysts informally describe as Drone Anxiety.
Historically, soldiers were accustomed to identifying threats originating from relatively predictable directions and locations. Modern drones fundamentally alter this perception. The threat becomes omnidirectional, persistent and often invisible.
Personnel operating in drone-saturated environments understand that they may be continuously observed, tracked over extended periods and targeted without warning.
As a result, the battlefield is increasingly characterised by a perception of permanent exposure.
15.4 Hypervigilance and Persistent Surveillance Stress
One of the most frequently observed effects is the development of chronic hypervigilance.
In conventional combat, periods of intense alertness are generally interspersed with opportunities for psychological recovery. In contrast, the persistent presence of drones creates the perception that surveillance may occur at any moment. Many soldiers report developing an almost automatic tendency to scan the sky continuously, even during periods of relative safety.
This phenomenon is increasingly associated with what some researchers describe as Persistent Surveillance Stress, a condition resulting from the continuous expectation of observation and targeting.
15.5 Uncertainty and Perceived Vulnerability
A particularly significant psychological factor is uncertainty. Unlike artillery fire or direct enemy contact, drone threats are often ambiguous. Soldiers may hear a drone without seeing it, observe a drone without knowing its purpose, or suspect surveillance without confirmation.
This ambiguity increases stress levels because it deprives personnel of the ability to accurately assess risk and select appropriate responses.
From a psychological perspective, uncertainty often generates greater stress than a clearly identifiable threat. The inability to determine whether one has been detected, tracked or targeted creates a persistent state of cognitive tension.
15.6 Learned Helplessness and Operational Behaviour
Several analysts have identified parallels between drone exposure and the psychological concept of learned helplessness.
When personnel perceive that surveillance is continuous and detection may lead rapidly to engagement, they may gradually develop a sense of reduced control over their environment. For a mountain soldier this sense will be amplified by an environment that it is difficult by nature.
15.7 Implications for Mountain Warfare
Mountain Warfare presents unique conditions that may amplify many of the psychological effects associated with unmanned systems.
Historically, mountainous terrain provided numerous psychological and tactical advantages, including, like, for example, concealment, terrain masking, restricted observation and opportunities for disengagement.
The increasing availability of advanced UAS equipped with electro-optical, thermal and multispectral sensors is progressively eroding these advantages. Personnel move through valleys, ridgelines, passes and narrow mobility corridors that can be systematically monitored by aerial surveillance assets.
Consequently, soldiers may experience a growing perception that traditional terrain protection can no longer be relied upon. This may contribute to elevated levels of stress, reduced confidence in concealment measures and increased hesitation during manoeuvre operations.
For Mountain Warfare forces, the psychological dimension of drone proliferation may therefore become as significant as its kinetic effects.